System Design Cheat Sheet: Quick Reference for Interviews and Beyond

System design interviews test your ability to think through trade-offs at scale. This cheat sheet gives you the key numbers, components, patterns, and checklists you need — all in one place.

Numbers Every Engineer Should Know#

These latency and throughput numbers help you make quick back-of-envelope estimates.

Throughput rules of thumb:

• A single server can handle ~10K–50K concurrent connections (with async I/O)
• A single PostgreSQL instance handles ~5K–10K transactions/second
• Redis handles ~100K operations/second on a single node
• A single SSD delivers ~100K–200K random IOPS
• 1 Gbps network = ~125 MB/s throughput

Data size estimates:

• 1 million users with 1 KB profile = 1 GB
• 1 billion rows at 100 bytes each = 100 GB
• 10 million images at 200 KB each = 2 TB
• 1 million daily active users generating 10 requests each = 10M requests/day = ~115 requests/second

Common Components#

Load Balancer (LB)#

Distributes traffic across multiple servers. Enables horizontal scaling and eliminates single points of failure.

• L4 (transport): Routes based on IP and port. Fast, no inspection.
• L7 (application): Routes based on HTTP headers, URL, cookies. More flexible.
• Algorithms: Round robin, least connections, weighted, IP hash, consistent hashing.
• Tools: NGINX, HAProxy, AWS ALB/NLB, Envoy.

Cache#

Reduces latency and database load by storing frequently accessed data in memory.

• Cache-aside: App checks cache first, loads from DB on miss, writes to cache.
• Write-through: App writes to cache and DB simultaneously.
• Write-behind: App writes to cache; cache async-writes to DB.
• Eviction: LRU (most common), LFU, TTL-based.
• Tools: Redis, Memcached, Varnish (HTTP cache), CDN edge cache.

Database (DB)#

Choose based on access patterns, consistency needs, and scale requirements.

• Relational (SQL): Strong consistency, ACID, complex queries. PostgreSQL, MySQL.
• Document (NoSQL): Flexible schema, horizontal scale. MongoDB, DynamoDB.
• Wide-column: High write throughput, time-series. Cassandra, ScyllaDB.
• Graph: Relationship-heavy queries. Neo4j, Amazon Neptune.
• Key-value: Simple lookups, extreme speed. Redis, DynamoDB.

Message Queue#

Decouples producers from consumers. Enables async processing and absorbs traffic spikes.

• At-most-once: Fire and forget. Fast but may lose messages.
• At-least-once: Retry until acknowledged. May duplicate.
• Exactly-once: Hardest to achieve. Usually involves idempotency.
• Tools: Kafka (high throughput, log-based), RabbitMQ (flexible routing), SQS (managed), NATS (lightweight).

CDN (Content Delivery Network)#

Caches static assets at edge locations close to users. Reduces latency for global audiences.

• Cache HTML, CSS, JS, images, videos at edge PoPs
• Typical hit ratio: 90–99% for static content
• Origin shield reduces load on your origin server
• Tools: CloudFront, Cloudflare, Fastly, Akamai

Step-by-Step Framework#

Use this framework for every system design question.

Step 1: Clarify Requirements (3–5 minutes)#

• What are the core features? (functional requirements)
• What are the scale expectations? (users, requests/sec, data volume)
• What are the non-functional requirements? (latency, availability, consistency)
• What is NOT in scope?

Step 2: Back-of-Envelope Estimation (3–5 minutes)#

• Daily active users and requests per user
• Read-to-write ratio
• Storage needs over 5 years
• Bandwidth requirements
• Peak vs average traffic (typically 3–5x average)

Step 3: High-Level Design (10–15 minutes)#

• Draw the major components: clients, LB, app servers, cache, DB, queue, CDN
• Show the data flow for core operations
• Identify the primary data model and storage choices
• Call out the API endpoints

Step 4: Deep Dive (10–15 minutes)#

• Pick 2–3 components to detail based on the interviewer's interest
• Discuss trade-offs for each decision
• Address bottlenecks and how to mitigate them
• Show how the design handles failure

Step 5: Wrap Up (3–5 minutes)#

• Summarize trade-offs made
• Discuss monitoring and alerting
• Mention future improvements

Common Patterns Checklist#

Use these patterns as building blocks. Check which ones apply to your design.

• Read replicas — scale read-heavy workloads by replicating the database
• Sharding — partition data across multiple databases by a shard key
• CQRS — separate read and write models for different optimization
• Event sourcing — store state as a sequence of events, not current state
• Saga pattern — manage distributed transactions across services
• Circuit breaker — prevent cascading failures by failing fast
• Bulkhead — isolate components so one failure does not sink the ship
• Consistent hashing — distribute data across nodes with minimal redistribution on changes
• Fan-out on write — precompute feeds/timelines at write time (Twitter model)
• Fan-out on read — compute feeds at read time, cheaper for low-read users
• Rate limiting — protect services from abuse (token bucket, sliding window)
• Idempotency — make operations safe to retry without side effects

Scaling Checklist#

When the interviewer asks "how would you scale this?", walk through these layers:

Vertical scaling (scale up):

• Bigger machines, more RAM, faster SSDs
• Simple but has a ceiling

Horizontal scaling (scale out):

• Stateless app servers behind a load balancer
• Database read replicas for read-heavy workloads
• Sharding for write-heavy or large datasets
• Cache layer (Redis/Memcached) to reduce DB load
• CDN for static content
• Message queues to decouple and buffer writes
• Async processing for non-critical paths

Data layer scaling:

• Connection pooling (PgBouncer, ProxySQL)
• Query optimization and proper indexing
• Denormalization for read performance
• Partitioning large tables by date or range
• Archive cold data to object storage

Infrastructure:

• Multi-region deployment for availability and latency
• Auto-scaling groups based on CPU/memory/request metrics
• Blue-green or canary deployments for safe rollouts

Monitoring Checklist#

Every system design should address observability. Cover these areas:

The Four Golden Signals (Google SRE):

1. Latency — response time for successful and failed requests
2. Traffic — requests per second, concurrent connections
3. Errors — 5xx rate, failed health checks, timeout rate
4. Saturation — CPU, memory, disk, connection pool utilization

What to monitor:

• Application metrics: request rate, error rate, p50/p95/p99 latency
• Infrastructure metrics: CPU, memory, disk I/O, network
• Database metrics: query time, connection count, replication lag, cache hit ratio
• Queue metrics: depth, consumer lag, processing time
• Business metrics: signups, orders, revenue per minute

Alerting principles:

• Alert on symptoms (high error rate), not causes (high CPU)
• Use severity levels: page for critical, ticket for warning
• Avoid alert fatigue — every alert should be actionable

Tools: Prometheus + Grafana, Datadog, New Relic, AWS CloudWatch, PagerDuty for on-call.

Quick Reference Card#

Requirement        --> Component
Static content     --> CDN
Session/state      --> Redis
Async processing   --> Message Queue (Kafka/SQS)
Search             --> Elasticsearch/OpenSearch
File storage       --> S3/GCS/Blob Storage
Real-time updates  --> WebSocket / SSE
Rate limiting      --> API Gateway / Redis
Auth               --> OAuth2 / JWT at gateway
Notifications      --> Queue + worker + push service
Analytics          --> Event stream + data warehouse

---

Explore more system design and engineering guides on the Codelit blog.